Oct 23, · Question 1: Discuss the role of financial markets in a modern economy. Explain how financial markets bridge the gap between borrowers and lenders. Financial markets play a vital role in the allocation of resources and operation of modern economies Mar 28, · Science and Technology Essay 3 ( words) As we all know that we live in the age of science and technology. The life of every one of us is highly depends on the scientific inventions and modern day technologies. Science and technology has changed the lives of people to a great extent. It has made life easy, simple and fast Essay, an analytic, interpretative, or critical literary composition usually much shorter and less systematic and formal than a dissertation or thesis and usually dealing with its subject from a limited and often personal point of view.. Some early treatises—such as those of Cicero on the pleasantness of old age or on the art of “divination,” Seneca on anger or clemency, and Plutarch on
Darwin's Influence on Modern Thought - Scientific American
Science from Latin scientia 'knowledge' [1] is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The earliest roots of science can be traced to Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia in around to BCE, modern science essay.
Modern science is typically divided into three major branches [19] that consist of the natural sciences e. New knowledge in science is advanced by research from scientists who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems.
Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. In particular, modern science essay, it was the type of knowledge that people can communicate to each other and share, modern science essay.
For example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded modern science essay and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of complex calendarsmodern science essay, techniques for making poisonous plants edible, public works at a national modern science essay, such as those which harnessed the floodplain of the Yangtse with reservoirs[40] dams, and dikes, and buildings such as the Pyramids.
However, no consistent conscious distinction was made between knowledge of such things, modern science essay, which are true in every community, and other types of communal knowledge, modern science essay, such as mythologies and legal systems. Metallurgy was known in prehistory, and the Vinča culture was the modern science essay known producer of bronze-like alloys.
It is thought that early experimentation with heating and mixing of substances over time developed into alchemy, modern science essay.
Thus, in addition to drug treatments, healing therapies would involve prayerincantationmodern science essay, and ritual. The ancient Mesopotamians used knowledge about the properties of various natural chemicals for manufacturing potteryfaienceglass, soap, metals, lime plasterand waterproofing; [42] they also studied animal physiologyanatomyand behavior for divinatory purposes [42] and made extensive records of the movements of astronomical objects for their study of astrology.
In classical antiquitythere is no real ancient analog of a modern scientist. Instead, well-educated, usually upper-class, and almost universally male individuals performed various investigations into nature whenever they could afford the time. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense, and also the first people to clearly distinguish "nature" and "convention.
They were mainly speculators or theoristsparticularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature artifice or technologyGreek technē was seen by classical scientists as a more appropriate interest for artisans of lower social class. The early Greek philosophers of the Milesian schoolwhich was founded by Thales of Miletus and later continued by his successors Anaximander and Anaximeneswere the first to attempt to explain natural phenomena without relying on the supernatural.
A turning point in the history of early philosophical science was Socrates ' example of applying philosophy to the study of human matters, including human nature, the nature of political communities, and human knowledge itself.
The Socratic method as documented by Plato 's dialogues is a dialectic method of hypothesis elimination: better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions, modern science essay. This was a reaction to the Sophist emphasis on rhetoric.
The Socratic method searches for general, commonly held truths that shape beliefs and scrutinizes them to determine their consistency with other beliefs. Socrates was later, in the words of his Apologyaccused of corrupting the youth of Athens because he did "not believe in the gods the state believes in, but in other new spiritual beings".
Socrates refuted these claims, [58] but was sentenced to death. Aristotle later created a systematic programme of teleological philosophy: Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, according to what types of things they are, modern science essay. In his physics, the Sun goes around the Earth, and many things have it as part of their nature that they are for humans. Each thing has a formal causea final causemodern science essay, and a role in a cosmic order with an unmoved mover.
The Socratics also insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being a study Aristotle divided into modern science essay and political philosophy.
Aristotle maintained that man knows a thing scientifically "when he possesses a conviction arrived at in a certain way, and when the first principles on which that conviction rests are known to him with certainty".
The Greek astronomer Aristarchus of Samos — BCE was the first to propose a heliocentric model of the universe, with the Sun at the center and all the planets orbiting it, modern science essay.
Because of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire due to the Migration Period an intellectual decline took place in the western part of Europe in the s. In modern science essay, the Byzantine Empire resisted the attacks from invaders, and preserved and improved upon the learning, modern science essay. John Philoponusa Byzantine scholar in the s, questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws.
During late antiquity and the early Middle Agesthe Aristotelian approach to inquiries on natural phenomena was used. Aristotle's four causes prescribed that the question "why" should be answered in four ways in order to explain things scientifically. However, the general fields of science or " natural philosophy " as it was called and much of the general knowledge from the ancient world remained preserved through the works of the early Latin modern science essay like Isidore of Seville.
Another original work that gained influence in this period was Ptolemy 's Almagestwhich contains a geocentric description of the solar system. During late antiquity, in the Byzantine empire many Greek classical texts were preserved.
Many Syriac translations were done by groups such as the Nestorians and Monophysites, modern science essay. The House of Wisdom was established in Abbasid -era Baghdad modern science essay, Iraq[73] where the Islamic study of Aristotelianism flourished. Al-Kindi — was the first of the Muslim Peripatetic philosophers, and is known for his efforts to introduce Greek and Hellenistic philosophy to the Arab world.
Ibn al-Haytham Alhazenas well as his predecessor Ibn Sahlwas familiar with Ptolemy's Opticsand used experiments as a means to gain knowledge, modern science essay. Furthermore, doctors and alchemists such as the Persians Avicenna and Al-Razi also greatly developed the science of Medicine with the former writing the Canon of Medicinea medical encyclopedia used until the 18th century and the latter discovering multiple compounds like alcohol, modern science essay. Avicenna's canon is considered to be one of the most important publications in medicine and they both contributed significantly to the practice of experimental medicine, using clinical trials and experiments to back their claims.
In Classical antiquityGreek and Roman taboos had meant that dissection was usually banned in ancient times, but in Middle Ages it changed: medical teachers and students at Bologna began to open human bodies, and Mondino de Luzzi c. By the eleventh century, modern science essay, most of Europe had become Christian; stronger monarchies emerged; borders were restored; technological developments and agricultural innovations were modern science essay which increased the food supply and population.
In addition, classical Greek texts started to be translated from Modern science essay and Greek into Latin, giving a higher level of scientific discussion in Western Europe. Bythe first university in Europe the University of Bologna had emerged from its clerical beginnings. Demand for Latin translations grew for example, from the Toledo School of Translators ; western Europeans began collecting texts written not only in Latin, modern science essay, but also Latin translations from Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew.
Manuscript copies of Alhazen's Book of Optics also propagated across Europe before[81] : Intro. xx as evidenced by its incorporation into Vitello's Perspectiva. Avicenna's Canon was translated into Latin. The influx of ancient texts caused the Renaissance of the 12th century and the flourishing of a synthesis of Catholicism and Aristotelianism known as Scholasticism in western Europewhich became a new geographic center of science.
An experiment in this period would be understood as a careful process of observing, describing, modern science essay, and classifying. Scholasticism had a strong focus on revelation and dialectic reasoningand gradually fell out of favour over the next centuries, as alchemy 's focus on modern science essay that include direct observation and meticulous documentation slowly increased in importance.
New developments in optics played a role in the inception of the Renaissanceboth by challenging long-held metaphysical ideas on perception, as well as by contributing to the improvement and development of technology such as the camera obscura and the telescope.
Before what we now know as the Renaissance started, Roger BaconVitelloand John Peckham each built up a scholastic ontology upon a causal chain beginning with sensation, perception, and finally apperception of modern science essay individual and universal forms of Aristotle.
This theory uses only three of Aristotle's four causes : formal, material, and final. In the sixteenth century, Copernicus formulated a heliocentric model of the solar system unlike the geocentric model of Ptolemy 's Almagest. This was based on a theorem that the orbital periods of the planets are longer as their orbs are farther from the centre of motion, which he found not to agree with Ptolemy's model.
Kepler and others challenged the notion that the only function of the eye is perception, and shifted the main focus in optics from the eye to the propagation of light. He found that all the light from a single point of the scene was imaged at a single point at the back of the glass sphere.
The optical chain ends on the retina at the back of the eye, modern science essay. Kepler did not reject Aristotelian modern science essay and described his work as a search for the Harmony of the Spheres. Galileo made innovative use of experiment and mathematics. However, he became persecuted after Pope Urban VIII blessed Galileo to write about the Copernican system.
Galileo had used arguments from the Pope and put them in the voice of the simpleton in the work "Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems", which greatly offended Urban VIII.
In Northern Europe, the new technology of the printing press was widely used to publish many arguments, including some that disagreed widely with contemporary ideas of nature.
René Descartes and Francis Bacon published philosophical arguments in favor of a new type of non-Aristotelian science. Descartes emphasized individual thought and argued that mathematics rather than geometry should be used in order to study nature.
Bacon emphasized the importance of experiment over contemplation. Bacon further questioned modern science essay Aristotelian concepts of formal cause and final cause, and promoted the idea that science should study the laws of "simple" natures, such as heat, modern science essay, rather than assuming that there is any specific nature, or " formal cause ", of each complex type of thing.
Modern science essay new science began to see itself as describing " laws of nature ". This updated approach to studies in nature was seen as mechanistic. Bacon also argued that science modern science essay aim for the first time at practical inventions for the improvement of all human life, modern science essay.
As a precursor to the Age of EnlightenmentIsaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz succeeded in developing a new physics, now referred to as classical mechanicsmodern science essay, which could be confirmed by experiment modern science essay explained using mathematics NewtonPhilosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica. Leibniz also incorporated terms from Aristotelian physicsbut now being used in a new non-teleological way, for example, " energy " and " potential " modern versions of Aristotelian " energeia and potentia ".
This implied a shift in the view of objects: Where Aristotle had noted that objects have certain innate goals that can be actualized, modern science essay, objects were now regarded as modern science essay of innate goals. In the style of Francis Bacon, Modern science essay assumed that different types of things all work according to the same general laws of nature, modern science essay, with no special formal or final modern science essay for each type of thing.
During this time, the declared purpose and value of science became producing wealth and inventions that would improve human lives, in the materialistic sense of having more food, clothing, and other things. In Bacon's words"the real and legitimate goal of sciences is the endowment of human life with new inventions and riches", and he discouraged scientists from pursuing intangible philosophical or spiritual ideas, which he believed contributed little to human happiness beyond "the fume of subtle, sublime, or pleasing speculation".
Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies [92] and academieswhich had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies modern science essay academies were also the backbones of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important development was the popularization of science among an increasingly literate population.
Philosophes introduced the public to many scientific theories, most notably through the Encyclopédie and the popularization of Newtonianism by Voltaire as well as by Émilie du Châtelet, the French translator of Newton's Principia. Some historians have marked the 18th century as a drab period in the history of science ; [93] however, the century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicinemathematicsand physics ; the development of biological taxonomy ; a new understanding of magnetism and electricity ; and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline, modern science essay, which established the foundations of modern chemistry.
Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors — GalileoBoyleand Newton principally — as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of nature and natural law to every physical and social field of the day. In this respect, the lessons of history and the social structures built upon it could be discarded.
Ideas on human nature, society, and economics also evolved during the Enlightenment. Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed a " science of man ", modern science essay, [95] which was expressed historically in works by authors including James BurnettAdam Fergusonmodern science essay, John Millar and William Robertsonall of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity.
Modern sociology largely originated from this movement. The nineteenth century is a particularly important period in the history of science since during this era many distinguishing characteristics of contemporary modern science began to take shape such as: transformation of the life and physical sciences, frequent use of precision instruments, emergence of terms like "biologist", "physicist", "scientist"; slowly moving away from antiquated labels like "natural philosophy" and " natural history ", increased professionalization of those studying nature lead to reduction in amateur naturalists, scientists gained cultural authority over many dimensions of society, economic expansion modern science essay industrialization of numerous countries, thriving of popular science writings and emergence of science journals, modern science essay.
Early in the 19th century, John Dalton suggested the modern atomic theorybased on Democritus 's original idea of indivisible particles called atoms. Both John Herschel modern science essay William Whewell systematized methodology: the latter coined the term scientist.
During the midth century, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace independently proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection inwhich explained how different plants and animals originated and evolved. Their theory was set out in detail in Darwin's book On the Origin of Specieswhich was published in The laws of conservation of energyconservation of momentum modern science essay conservation of mass suggested a highly stable universe where there could be little loss of resources.
With the advent of modern science essay steam engine and the industrial revolutionthere was, however, an increased understanding that all forms of energy as defined in physics were not equally useful: they did not have the same energy quality.
modern science and technology
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Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, so it now defines what science is in the strictest sense of the term. Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge, rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge Essay, an analytic, interpretative, or critical literary composition usually much shorter and less systematic and formal than a dissertation or thesis and usually dealing with its subject from a limited and often personal point of view.. Some early treatises—such as those of Cicero on the pleasantness of old age or on the art of “divination,” Seneca on anger or clemency, and Plutarch on Oct 23, · Question 1: Discuss the role of financial markets in a modern economy. Explain how financial markets bridge the gap between borrowers and lenders. Financial markets play a vital role in the allocation of resources and operation of modern economies
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